Medicines and drugs Essay Example for Free

Medicines and drugs Essay A drug or medicine is a chemical that alters incoming sensory sensations, mood or emotions, or physiological state. Painkillers, hallucinogens and alcohols are examples of drugs and medicines that alter incoming sensory sensations. Prozac and alcohol alter mood or emotions Steroids, cigarettes and heart medicines alter physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination. Drugs such as antiseptics, antibiotics and antivirals are infection fighters; hormones and vitamins affect body chemistry or metabolism; stimulants, depressants, analgesics and anesthetics affect the central nervous system and the brain. It is also important to understand that the human body has great natural healing processes; some drugs just increase the rate of natural healing. Also, there could be a placebo effect, it is when a pharmacologically inert substance that make seems to help because the person taking the substance was told that it would work. Placebo effect is examined by giving sugar pills to one group of tests patients, and real drugs to another group (when they are not aware of which they receive). B.1.2: Outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products. This takes a very long time and costs a fortune, and is often controlled by the government. Before drugs are tested on humans, they must be testing on various animals (start with small animals and then go to bigger ones). The range of effective doses, the doses in which side-effects arise and the lethal doses have to be determined. There are 3 phases then; clinical trial; clinical evaluation (more in depth analysis); human studies with more evaluation, Very few drugs make it to the market, and the development would have cost a lot. Sometimes, things can still go wrong, like Thalidomide. It was given to pregnant women to treat morning sickness, but it cause deformities in babies! Now it is still used, but to treat skin sores. B.1.3. Describe the different methods of administering drugs * Oral: Very convenient. However, it might not be reliable as the rate of absorption depends on drug concentration, stomach content and pH value. As most is absorbed in the small intestines, so the drug must survive the gastric acid. Therefore it often lays in time release capsules. * Rectal: Good when drug cannot be taken orally due to vomiting or because the drug is pH sensitive. * Inhalation: Rapid, as there are loads of blood vessels in the lungs, and therefore a drug would have a reliable effect. Good for general anaesthesia, and asthma medicine. * Parental o Just below the skin; slower than for intravenous. Used often for dental injections o Into muscles; for large doses, or when immediate response is not needed (vaccines etc). o Intravenous; almost instantaneous, but cannot be undone when injected! Fatty lipids may bind some kinds of drugs, so the drugs wont leave the body so fast The half life of a drug is the time for half the dose in the body to be eliminated. B.1.4. Discuss the terms lethal dosage (LD50), tolerance and side effects. LD50 is the lethal dose for 50% of the population; and it varies a lot from drug to drug. When one is tolerant, then one has to take a larger dose in order to feel the wanted effects. Some people after often use of a drug becomes dependant on it; physically (they must have it to be able to function physically) or psychologically (they must have it to feel right). Tolerance doesnt necessarily mean that one gets used to the harmful effects. Sometimes it is hard to know the difference between main effect and side effect. A drug has many effects, and some patients benefit from a few of those effects; then those are the main effects, and all the other are side effects. Someone else, with another disease may benefit from other effects, and then those become the main effects. There are always harmful effects too. The risk : benefit ratio should also be considered. B.2.1. State and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the use of different bases. Bases, most often metal oxides, hydroxides, carbonates or hydrogen carbonates are used as antacids. These react with acid in the stomach to adjust the pH value. The purpose of gastric acid is to kill off bacteria, and help in digestion. However, over-eating or stress stimulates more production of acid, causing discomfort. The active ingredients tend to be; this react only with HCl: Magnesium Oxide: Magnesium Hydroxide: Aluminium Hydroxide: Calcium Carbonate: Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate: Magnesium Trisilicate: Some of the products; Carbon dioxide is a gas. So a foaming agent has to be added to prohibit excessive belching. Also alginates are used, to prevent acid reflux. If too much antacid is used, the stomach becomes too basic, and that hurts too; then more antacid might be wrongly taken. This leads to alkalosis. B.3.2. Describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol (acetaminophen) Salicylic acid is used as an anti-pyretic (fever reducer) and mild analgesic (painkiller), but it is a strong acid and hurts the stomach and mouth; so variations of salicylic acid was used. One is Acetyl Salicylic Acid (ASA) or Aspirin, which has the benefits of salicylic acid and does not irritate so much due to the acetyl group. When ASA reacts with water, it becomes salicylic acid, and the by-product of ethanoic acid. GOOD: It is good for killing minor pain, reducing fever, acting as an anti-inflammatory agent and prevents abnormal blood clot. BAD: Upsets stomach and bleeding; allergy; accidental poisoning in infants and Reyes syndrome. Acetaminophen is also an anti-pyretic and analgesic. However it does not upset the stomach and is safe. However, overdose can still occur and lead to liver and brain damage. And it is not anti-inflammatory. Ibuprofen is like aspirin and cause fewer stomach problems. It is anti-inflammatory and is very safe. B.3.3. Compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate heroin. These are strong analgesics and are often called opiates, narcotics or narcotic analgesics. The major pain relieving substance originates from the opium poppy plant is sleep inducing and pain relieving. All three share the same skeleton. Remember the group C2H3O2 is called an acetyl group. B.3.4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivatives as strong analgesics. These affects: The Central Nervous System, the Eye and the Gastrointestinal tract (the digestive system) They are used as: Strong analgesics (severe pain from injury and chronic diseases); treatment of diarrhoea, relieve coughing. However they are very addictive and are rather replaced with something else. They also produce mood changes, drowsiness and mental clouding. Tolerance can arise by adaptation of the liver and neurons in the brain. Some people cant function without the drug, feeling restlessness, sweating, fever, chills, vomiting, aches etc due to abstinence of the drug. There is often severe psychological dependence too (one might feel extremely depressed).à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Short term effects: Sedation, stupor, pain relief, euphoria, reduced tension, worry, couching reflex. One might die of overdose. Long term effects: Loss of appetite, sterility, withdrawal illness, crime, diversion of energy. B.4.1. Describe the effects of depressants Tranquilizers, sedatives and hypnotics, which calm and relax; they slow down heart rate and breathing. Tranquilizers include alcohol, Valium and Librium and are weaker than the others. These relieve anxiety and tension. Sedatives: Barbituates that soothe distress without producing much sleep in small doses. Hypnotics: Like chloral hydrate. These induce sleep. Too much can lead to coma or teach. B.4.2. Discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol. Social effects: Major costs from alcohol are from sickness and death, as in hospital treatments and lost efficiency. Property crimes and crimes against people; drinking while driving. Physiological effects: Harmful to relationships, and may physically or emotionally harm others. One may lose control and develop dependence and tolerance. It increases blood pressure when drinking and nausea, sweating and anxiety as withdrawal of use. Short-term effects: CNS depressant reduces tension. It triggers Euphoria, Talkativeness, Dilation of blood vessels, Violent behaviours, Inertia, Coma, Death. Long term effects: Cirrhosis, liver cancer, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, strokes, gastritis, low birth mass etc. Alcohol can be used for antiseptics such as mouthwashes. B.4.3. Describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath of in the blood or urine. Ethanol passes from the stomach into the blood and therefore it passes into the lungs and ethanol vapour is formed. The breathalyser test might involve a redox equation with potassium dichromate: as oxidizing agent. Color change: Red-Orange to Green The gas liquid chromatography works as follows: Small samples of gases and volatile liquids such ethanol are separated. These are pushed through a column using an unimportant gas, such as Nitrogen gas and different gases take different time to come to the detector, where concentration of gases are measured. Intoxilyzer, Infra-red spectroscopy: Infra-red energy make molecules vibrate. Different types of bonds absorb and vibrate at different infer-red frequencies. By measuring how much energy is not absorbed by the molecules, one can find the number of certain bonds in the molecules. B.4.4. Describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs. Alcohol is easily absorbed in the stomach, so drugs that can be dissolved in alcohol will be absorbed much quicker, and the dosage will seem higher as in normal conditions the liver removes a part of the drug. So performance of the drug is enhanced and may lead to devastating effects such as death, especially if alcohol is combined with barbituates. Alcohol with aspirin increases the risk of stomach bleeding. B.4.5 . List other commonly used depressants and describe their structures. Valium (diazepam) is a tranquilizer, Mogadon (Nitrazepam) is a hypnotic drug (used to control seizures and infantile spasms), Prozac (hydrochloride) is an anti-depressant drug used to treat mental depression. Diazepam and Nitrazepam have similar carbon skeletons meanwhile Prozac is different. B.5.1. List the physiological effects of stimulants. Stimulants are chemicals that stimulate the brain and the central nervous system. It is the opposite of a depressant. These increase alertness. Examples are amphetamine, nicotine and caffeine. B.5.2. Compare amphetamines and adrenaline They both derive from the phenylethylamine structure, and therefore look similar. Furthermore, amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline (they are sympathomimetic drugs), as they constrict arteries and thus increases sweat production. They increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and insomnia. Medical uses: Treat mild depression, narcolepsy and asthma. They use up the bodys reserve energy and can lead to a collapse. B.5.3 Discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption. Tobacco is a source of nicotine which is a mild stimulant with a short lived effect. The response is followed by depression and thereby makes one pushed to use it more often. Short-term: Increase in heart-rate and blood pressure. It constricts blood vessels and therefore strains the heart. Nicotine also reduces urine output. Long term effects of nicotine: It stresses hard and may lead to heart diseases and blood clot; May lead to increase of fatty acids in the blood. Smoking leads to more carbon monoxide in the blood making the blood less able to carry blood. It also increases the gastric acid production and may lead to ulcer. Smoking causes: Cancer in lungs and mouth; heart and blood vessel disease; breathing difficulties and chronic bronchitis; air pollution; fires; bad teeth; insomnia. B.5.4. Describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine. Caffeine stimulates the respiratory system (more energy is available from respiration), so heart and brain gets more energy. So one becomes more alert, motivated and well-being. In small amounts in is rather harmless, but too much causes insomnia. One gets more urine as well. Caffeine leads to some tolerance but no physical addiction. It can be given to babies to help their breathing. It also constricts blood vessels and therefore helps against migraines. Both caffeine and nicotine contain a tertiary amine group. Caffeine has more of those though. B.6.1. Describe the historical development of penicillins. In 1928, Fleming accidentally saw that some types of fungi killed off a certain bacterium and started to try to isolate the fungi, but it was too hard to purify it. In 1940, Floray and Chain continued with penicillin testing and development, and in 1943 it was available clinically. The first penicillin was Penicillin G. However it was deactivated by stomach acid so it had to be injected. Acid resistance penicillins such as penicillin V was developed by modifying the side chains of the basic penicillin structure. Some bacteria could deactivate penicillin G by synthesising an enzyme, therefore one had to make other synthetic penicillins. 6-APA penicillin is inert, but an extra amino group H2N would activate it. B.6.2. Compare broad spectrum and narrow spectrum antibiotics A broad spectrum antibiotics is effective against a wide variety of bacteria. Examples are tetracyclines. Narrow ones are effective only against certain types of bacteria; most penicillins are narrow spectrum antibiotics. One often has to determine the bacterium before getting antibiotics, because a broad-spectrum one can kill beneficial bacteria and give discomfort. B.6.3. Explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain. The cell walls of some bacteria are composed of polysaccharides, and these layers are supported by cross-links. However, penicillins interfere with the formation of these links and therefore weaken the structure. The bacteria can easily burst. Animals cells dont have these cell walls and are therefore not affected. It is important to modify the side chain to work against bacteria have evolved and are able to break down certain types of penicillin. Side chains are also added to make the penicillin work (as for the 6-APA) and to survive the gastric acid (Penicillin G) B.6.4. Discuss and explain the effect over prescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock Repeated use may lead to allergic reactions. They can also wipe out harmless and beneficial bacteria in the food canal, and harmful bacteria might eventually replace these. Bacteria can become resistant against certain antibiotics and then pass on their immunity. In feedstock: They are used to kill dangerous pathogens which may otherwise endanger humans and animals. They are also used to increase productivity. However, this increases the chances that bacteria might become resistant. B.7.1. State how viruses differ from bacteria Bacteria are relatively large single cell microorganism with DNA strands. Viruses are noncellular and are much smaller and are not living. They can only reproduce within a host cell. B.7.2. Describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work * Block the transfer of genetic information * Control by inoculation, vaccines. * Block the enzyme activity in a host cell, so that the virus cant use it to replicate. B.7.3. Discuss the difficulties associated with solving the AIDS problem HIV molecules bind to proteins on T-type of white blood cells and hinder them from fighting infections by inactivating them. HIV virus is good at mutating and together with their similarities with human cells, it is very heard to treat with antiviral drugs and vaccines. B.8.1. Describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action. Stereoisomers are isomers with the same molecular formula and the same structural formula, but different arrangement of atoms in space. Geoemetric isomers have different physical properties such as polarity, boiling point, and solubility etc. They may also undergo different t chemical reactions although their functional groups are identical. For example cisplatin is en effective anti-cancer drug (as it may enter the nucleus of a cancerous cell), but the trans-isomers is inactive in such purposes. B.8.2. Discuss the importance of chirality in drug action. Optical isomers differ from geometric isomers in two ways: * Optical isomers are chiral (asymmetric) * Optical isomers are non-superimposable mirror images of each other One optical isomer rotates the plane polarized light one direction, meanwhile its other isomer rotates it the other way. An equi-molar mixture of two enantiomers means a 50-50 ration and will not totate the plane of polarised light at all; this is a racemic mixture. Penicillin V is active, but its enantiomer is inactive. One enantiomer of Thalidomide could be used to treat morning sickness in pregnant women and was marketed as a racemix mixture, but its other enantiomer gave foetal deformities. B.8.3. Describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer. It is very heard to separate racemic mixtures into separate enantiomers, as they have identical chemical properties in relation to non-chiral reagents. Instead, scientists use stereospecific synthesis to produce only one kind of enantiomer. Chiral auxiliaries are used to convert non-chiral molecules into a desired enantiomer by attching itself chemically to the non-chiral molecule so that only one type of enantiomer can be formed. After the procedure the auxiliary can be recycled. This is used when synthesising Taxol which isa drug effective against breast cancer. B.8.4. Explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesise new drugs. This is when one creates lots of molecules and test them quickly for biological properties; one starts with a set of basic chemicals which are then combined in all possible combinations, and this allows a fast production of many different molecules, increasing the chance of finding better drugs. A library is a collection of compounds that are screened to determine their usefulness as a drug, using parallel synthesis (identical processes with many different molecules at the same time). B.9.1. Compare local and general anaesthetics in terms of their modes of action Local anaesthetics block the pain in specific areas when they are injected under the skin or used as a crà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½me. Examples are cocaine, procaine, benzococaine, lidocaine etc. These block local nerve transmissions and decrease blood supply to that area. Procaine and lidocaine do not affect the brain, meanwhile cocaine does. General anaesthetics affect the brain and produce unconsciousness. But it is easy to reverse the unconsciousness. Examples are nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, chloroform, cyclopropane and halothane. B.9.2. Compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine. All three have the benzene ring and the tertiary amine. Cocaine also stimulates the central nervous system. It constricts blood vessels which leads to high blood pressure, and cant be safely used. Although it doesnt produce withdrawal symptoms and tolerance, it produces a strong psychological addiction. An overdose suppresses heart and respiration. Cocaine has a very short half life as it is metabolized by the liver fast, and is poorly absorbed when taken orally. Procaine gives prolonged relief from pain which is good for surgery and dental procedures. It is non-toxic and non-irritant. Lidocaine is used topically to produce numbness. It is more potent that procaine, but may cause swelling and itching. B.9.3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane. Nitrous oxide is not very potent, and makes one feel good Trichloromethane is nonflammabe, but leads to liver damages. Narrow safety margin Ethoxyethane alleviates the pain in surgery well, but it is very flammable and nonstable. Cyclopropane is a very potent anaesthetics, however it forms explosive mixtures with air and is very flammable. It also causes vomiting and nausea. Halothane is widely used as it is not flammable and one may recover fast from it. It doesnt irritate the respiratory tract. However, it takes time to become unconscious. It is potentially harmful to the ozone layer as it produces chlorine and bromine free radicals. B.9.4. Calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anaesthetic mixture The partial pressure ratios of the total pressure equal the molar ratios of different gas molecules. It is important to have enough oxygen in the anaesthetic mixture so that the patient can live. At least 20% oxygen is needed B.10.1 Describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychadelic drugs like these alter the mind and produces a change in thought, perception or mood and induce vivid fantasies. Colors seem more brilliant for the user. There are the effects of the mentioned mind altering drugs: LSD: This is a powerful hallucinogen that strongly magnifies perception and may destroy the sense of judgment. No physical addiction, and not very strong psychological dependence. Mescaline: Color hallucinations which last 12 hours. Psilocybin: Similar to LSD, especially at high doses, but at low doses produces relaxation. Shortlasting; 4 hours THC: Milder drug similar to alcohol. At larger doses, changes in perception occurs sees bright colors and gets sharper hearing. May get extreme anxiety, depression, uneasiness, panic attacks etc. There is no tolerance, but could lead to psychological dependence. B.10.2 Discuss the structural similarities and differences between LSD, mescaline and psilocybin. LSD and psilocybin both have the Indole ring (Heterocyclic amine compound where the nitrogen atom is part of a ring). However, mescaline includes the benzene ring but not the indole ring; it does have a primary amine. Serotonin also has the indole ring. B.10.3 Discuss the arguments for and against the legalization of cannabis. Cannabis offers relief from symptoms from AIDS, cancer and glaucoma. Marijuana may increase the appetite, and relieves nausea. Cannabis helps terminally ill patients to relieve tension and anxiety. Marijuana relieves pressure inside the eyeball for glaucoma patients. However there are many bad sides to it too. Smoking marijuana may lead to lung problems and may suppress the immune system. It might lead to decreased fertility for men and cause brain damage and birth defects. Users may also start using harder drugs too. Users of prohibited drugs need to obtain it from criminal sources and may therefore be forced into crime to support their habit. It damages the society a lot.

Effect of Country Development on Technology

Effect of Country Development on Technology Introduction Technology is becoming increasingly very important to the success of all business firms, and to the national economic growth. The process of globalization is driven by technology development and the ability of corporations to uplift the use of technology effectively and rapidly. The technological gap between developed countries and emerging nations has narrowed but still remains huge. The first step to narrowing the gap is for emerging nations to absorb technology successfully. The rapid economic growth achieved by the newly industrialized economies has generated a vast amount of research on the mechanism behind the economic take off. According to F. Montes-Negret (2008), progress in developing countries reflects the absorption of pre-existing technologies not at the frontier inventions. In general terms, catch up refers to the ability of a country to reduce the gap in productivity and income with respect to the leading international countries (Fagerberg-Godinho,2005). Perez (1988) views catching up as a question of relative speed in a race along a fixed track, according to him, technology is understood to be a unidirectional process. Furthermore, he observes that every country is a beginner in terms of the newly emerging techno-economic paradigm, which implies the possibility of being a latecomer. Research has shown that in the catching-up process, the late-comer does not simply follow the path of a technological development of the advanced countries. Instead, they would rather skip some stages or even create their own individual ways which are different from the developed countries. By doing this, it may result in the developing countries becoming latecomers in technology advancing. For the country to have growth in economy and industrial development, it needs to have an absorptive capacity and ability to tap in the worlds technology pool. Cohen and Levinthal (2000) explains absorptive capacity as the ability to assess the value of external knowledge and technology and to make necessary investments and changes to absorb and apply these changes in a productive manner. The development of new-to-the world knowledge can be considered to be innovative which can be a costly learning activity that a country can employ in order to catch up with others through technology absorption. Innovation and technology absorption are two distinct processes, that is, innovation promotes absorptive capacity because the generation of human capital and new ideas, and the associated knowledge spillover effects, help build absorptive capacity. RD is a key input into innovation and is also an input into absorption capacity. Absorption of technology is considered a necessary step to promote the development of human capital and the productive base, paving the way for innovations at the global knowledge frontier. Research and development (RD), patents, trade, and foreign direct investment are major channels of technological absorption, allowing diffusion of new ideas and manufacturing best practices among countries and firms. R D is a key input into innovation and is considered to be a very important key in the absorption of technology (Cohen and Levinthal). Rogers (2003) defines examples of technology absorption as the adoption of new product and manufacturing processes developed in other countries; upgrading of an old product or process, licensing technology, improving organizational efficiency and achieving quality certification. This paper will discuss how properly designed economic policies can significantly influence the degree to which a country absorbs new technology, that is, it will discuss the pre requisites for technology catch ups. The need for a stable and conducive policy framework and a business-friendly investment climate is what makes the countrys ability to absorb technology and knowledge, and this depends on its organization and the skills of its workforce. Further more the paper will discuss the channels that developing countries can use to catch up with other developed countries through technology absorption such as trade flows, foreign direct investment (FDI), RD and patents. Literature Review The very rich literature on catch-up through technology is full of countries that in the past decades have managed catch up with the developed countries, others that have succeeded ahead and several that have fallen behind in technology and failed to be par with the developed world (Abramovitz, 1986). More research has identified a series of factors that have affected the sources of catch-up. One of the elements is regard to the presence of learning and capabilities in the domestic firms (Bell and Pavitt, 1993, Kim, 1997; 1999, Lall, 2001, Kim and Nelson, 2000, Lee, 2005). Catch-up countries should try to adopt the Schumpeterian view of the process of innovation, according to which economic agents are likely to innovate as a reaction to unexpected changes within the economic environment (Schumpeter, 1947). From the early traditional literature that emphasized how it was possible to close the gap though transfer of technology and the imitation of easily available technology, the liter ature on competences has forcefully moved to show the central role of the process of capability accumulation by domestic firms and the need of various types of capabilities for catch up: absorptive capabilities, innovation capabilities and complementary assets in order to adopt, adapt and modify technologies developed elsewhere or eventually generate new ones. Actually, the most current research has shown that any process of development and growth implies some kind of innovation, and that sequences of steps in the capability building process are necessary for development. The literature has also stressed the role of social capabilities (Abramovitz 1986) and the broad institutions of a country, including the research infrastructure (Mazzoleni and Nelson,2006) and financial institutions (Gerschenkron, 1962). In the catching up in income per capita or productivity public policy has often played a major role in different ways and forms in several countries such as Japan (Johnson,1982), Korea (Kim 1997), Taiwan (Wade, 1990) and Brazil (Mani, 2004). Also the upgrading of the level of human capital has proven a key element for catching up (Fagerberg and Godinho,2004 and Bernardes and Albuquerque, 2003). The literature further shows how technology in growth is the missing link between the developed and the less developed countries. There is a possibility of a catch-up scenario in the event that less developed countries are able to access and employ developed technology. In other words, less developed countries would grow at a higher rate until at such time that the differences between developed and less developed countries are negligible. This can be shown by the experience of East Asian countries (World Bank, 1993). Catching up is usually assumed to be dependent on the level of human capital and knowledge. Capital is a necessary tool for the economic success in the world today, because the countires need the capacity to mobilize knowledge and to use it to the fullest. A study by the World bank (2009) indicates that countries in the Sub Sahara of Africa (SSA) must harness both more capital and more knowledge. These African countries needs to invest heavily in physical infrastructure and productive capacity. However, maximizing productivity and achieving competitiveness will depend upon success in augmenting human capital and raising its quality. This has been shown by Namibia as it was ranked the second and fifth respectively in terms of technological sophistication and prevalence of foreign technology licensing in the competitiveness report. However, firm level absorption of this technology remains low as the country was ranked 15th. From this case we can learn that the use of technology require s skilled labor force. As earlier pointed out, investment in human capital remains a critical issue for Namibia and other developing countries. The use of technology requires supporting infrastructure such as good telecommunication and energy in particular. (?) Nations such as Australia, Chile, Malaysia, and Spain have responded by developing cross-sectoral policy frameworks to promote science, technology, and innovation. Within Sub-Saharan Africa, Mozambique, Rwanda, and South Africa have led the way with similar cross-cutting strategies. Other SSA countries that have produced national science and technology policies since 2000 include Ethiopia, Ghana, Lesotho, Malawi, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (Mouton 2008). Better education system can assist the developing countries in †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Pre Requisites for technology catch up Technology absorption is often regarded as a pre requisite for breaking up a high cost economy and creating an economic competitive market internationally. The initial gap for countries which are trying to catch up with technology should not be too wide for them to be able to absorb knowledge from technological leaders. Moreover, late comers must have, or create, sufficient absorption capabilities. In this context, sufficient absorption capabilities are described as having qualified researchers who are able to understand external knowledge spillovers and recognize their value in operation. Developing countries need a strong human capital base that will be able to understand the new innovative systems that have been put in place by the advanced countries, hence they need well developed scientific, engineering and technical skills. Cohen and Levinthal (1990 pg .129) suggest that accumulated knowledge increases both the ability to put new ideas into practice. If the stock of knowledge i s increased, in general, additional learning will be facilitated. The growth of knowledge adds value to the countrys ability to adapt to new ideas thus becoming fast in catching up with technology. Technological progress depends on more than being exposed to foreign technologies. How fast it spreads within a country is at least as important and depends on the domestic technological absorptive capacity, the quality of technological literacy of the population and the quality of the business climate. Although major centers and leading firms may be relatively advanced, the rural population and the majority of firms do not exploit the best technologies, often because the necessary infrastructure and human competencies are not available. This may lead to some lags in technology catch up for developing countries. Nelson and Rosenberg (2003) explains the importance of the link between science and technology as this is one of the important tools for technology catch up. The technological progress requires the mobilisation, co-ordination and integration of many different types of knowledge, and thus involves different types of knowledge producing organizations like firms, research institutes, and universities. Research organizations should be able to communicate to each other about technology innovations that are occurring within their countries. This will enhance knowledge diffusion. With respect to the co-ordination and integration of knowledge across the research sector, communication or even interaction is needed. This can be accomplished by co-operation, strategic alliances, clusters, and networks, all of which install channels along which knowledge can be communicated. If communication exists within countries, the developing countries may be able to learn this as a good tool for success in technology absorption. Knowledge is no longer the disciplinary monopoly of a few institutions of higher learning; rather, it is becoming the product of problem-solving endeavors conducted within a shifting network of often informal professional interactions (Gibbons and others 1994; Gibbons 1998). The technological progress in developing countries is mainly a process of adopting and adapting to pre-existing technologies, hence developing countries perform relatively little when it comes to research. For the developing countries, technological progress mainly occurs through the adoption and adaptation of already existing technologies. The rapid increase in technological achievement owes much too increased linkages between developing and developed countries. Globalization in the form of imports of advanced products, and the transfer of business process technology through foreign investment and increased linkages with emigrant populations have increased the exposure of developing countries to more sophisticated technologies. Technology absorption needs stable and conducive policy framework hence policy makers should ensure that openness is maintained, they need to concentrate on strengthening domestic competencies, promoting the dissemination of technology and reinforcing the local business environment in order to avoid the constrain on technological progress in developing countries. Patents as indicators of Technology absorption SUMMARY Catching up does not necessarily need to be viewed in a linear and unidirectional way. As long as technology is understood as a cumulative unidirectional process, development will be seen as a race along a fixed track, where catching up will be merely a question of relative speed. Speed is no doubt a relevant aspect, but history is full of examples of how successful overtaking has been primarily based on running in a new direction.xiv Indeed, in new fields such as biotechnology, the developing countries are making efforts to move to the scientific frontiers but they plan to apply the acquired knowledge in developing products that are more relevant to local needs. [T]he larger the technological and, therefore, the productivity gap between the leader and the follower, the stronger the followers potential for growth in productivity; and, other things being equal, the faster one expects the followers growth rate to be. Followers tend to catch up faster if they are initially backward.xv The explanation for this paradoxical suggestion has to do with the level of technology embodied in a countrys capital stock. Developing countries with the relevant human capital base are always presented with new windows of opportunity for entering new technological systems. But doing so requires other skills such as the capacity to monitor international trends, formulate long-term strategies and determine the locational as well as infrastructure advantages of the country. Most African countries, for example, do not have the capacity or the requisite institutional arrangements for monitoring technological advantages. Planning efforts are usually of a short-term nature and therefore unable to accommodate technological requirements for long-term growth. In more recent years, most countries have been forced to adopt short-term planning strategies to enable them to implement macro-economic stabilisation programmes. However, the challenge now is to put in place longterm structural adjustment programmes which are based on industrial transformation. Technological catch-up may also involve the use of advanced technologies to deliver new products and services that do not necessarily compete with those developed in the industrialised countries. Many of the products of biotechnology, for example, may be relevant to certain locales and of little interest to the major firms. Their technological requirements, however, may be just as high as those for the products of the leading firms. The paper has shown that there are three points of entry into the game of technological competition. The first relates to the accumulation of basic technological competence in society. This is related to human capital formation. A country without the requisite technical competence is unlikely to make sustained advances in technological development. The second issue is the ability of a country to make an early entry into a particular technological system. This step can only be achieved where the first one has been accomplished. The last issue is the potent ial for a country to occupy particular technological niches as part of a strategy for industrial learning. With the widening range of technological trajectories and systems, the opportunities for the developing adopting any of the three strategies or combinations thereof are relatively high. To achieve improvement of production technology, i.e. technological progress, on a large scale, relatively more scientists and engineers must be engaged in research directly integrated in production of goods and services as opposed to the university and public research sector. Notwithstanding that universities and public research institutes play an important role in developing new products and processes, the majority of research is done by firms (Nelson and Rosenberg (1993)). For new products or processes developed by universities or research and development (RD) institutes, both domestic and foreign, to be implemented in firms roduction processes, the innovation must be adapted to firms specific organizational structure and production processes. This implies that firms understand the innovation and are able to revise it. Firms will have to do research themselves (Cohen and Levinthal (1989)) and might even have to repeat parts of the original research process, since they have only pa rtial knowledge about the innovation. This has important implications for the organisation of RD personnel: they should be employed in production as well. More RD personnel in production of goods and services will increase the possibilities for absorption and diffusion in this sector. because a weakening economic performance that threatens a return to the economic conditions of the 1990s would be a great human tragedy. But maintaining the current momentum, and accelerating growth wherever possible, requires measures that will substantially enhance economic competitiveness and nurture expansion of new tradable activities. To realize these objectives, The key to economic success in a globalized world lies increasingly in how effectively a country can assimilate the available knowledge and build comparative advantage in selected areas with good growth prospects, and in how it can enlarge the comparative advantage by pushing the frontiers of technology through innovation. The global knowledge economy has drawn attention to the value of â€Å"national innovation systems in the competition among nations (Nelson 1993; Porter 1990; Stern, Porter, and Furman 2000; Thurow 1999; World Bank 1999). Institutions that generate skills and knowledge, such as universities and rese arch institutes, are essential components of a national innovation system (NIS). In essence, an NIS is a melding of institutional capacities, coordination mechanisms, communication networks, and policy incentives that fosters innovation-led gains in economic productivity. In this web of institutional relationships, innovation can arise at any point. During the past decade, most African countries have pursued national economic growth strategies within the framework of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs). Until recently, many PRSPs have been oriented toward attainment of the Millennium Development Goals, an internationally accepted set of performance targets spanning poverty alleviation, agriculture, and access to basic services. Concern with explicit growth promotion efforts as the means for sustainable poverty reduction is a relatively recent—but readily accepted—shift of strategic approach (Commission for Africa 2005). Bibliography Nelson, R. and E. Phelps (1966), Investment in humans, technology diffusion and economic growth, American Economic Review 56, 1/2, 69-75. Harding, T. and J. Rattsà ¸ (2008), Looking abroad to understand productivity growth: the world technology frontier and industrial sector productivity in South Africa, mimeo, Department of Economics, NTNU. Cohen, W.M. and Levinthal, D.A. (1989), Innovation and Learning: The Two Faces of RD,The Economic Journal, 99, pp. S.569-596. Cohen, W.M. and Levinthal, D.A. (1990), Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation in Administrative Science Quarterly, No. 35, pp. 128-152 Nelson, R.R. and Rosenberg, N. (1993), Technical Innovation and National Systems, in Nelson, R.R. (ed.), National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Study, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3-21 Nelson, R.R. and Winter, S.G. (1982), An Evolutionary Theory for Economic Change, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Calestous Juma and Norman Clark; Technological Catch-Up: Opportunities and Challenges for Developing Countries, 2002, London , Print Publishers Hiroyuki Oba and Hrushikash Panda; Industrial developmeny and Technology absorption in the Indian Steel Industry, 2005, allied Publisher, New Delhi The World Bank, 2009, Accelerating catch-up, Tertiary Education for Growth in Sub Saharan Africa, Washington D.C J.Ratlso, Puzzles of Convergence and Catching Up;Regional Income growth in Norway, Department of economics , Norwegian university of Science and Technology

Free Music :: essays research papers

Free Music   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shawn Fanning came out from backstage to present an award with a Metallica shirt on. It was one of the funniest moments of the entire award show. The reason it was funny is because Metallica is suing Napster. Shawn Fanning created Napster to make it possible to download music for free, and Metallica is trying to help destroy the program he made. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), many artists, and many labels are all combining to help get rid of Napster. The main dog in the fight is the RIAA. They have tried to work with the RIAA, but they only want to destroy the program. The number of people that use Napster has grown rapidly in the last few months because of the publicity the news has given it. If it weren?t for the RIAA suing them, most people wouldn?t have even heard of Napster. There are many programs like Napster on the Internet, but the RIAA has set its sights on the most popular one for now. I don?t see any reason to shut them down comp letely. The RIAA and Napster should combine and create a better place to find music on the Internet.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  People that use Napster think that downloading music is a way of sharing. People get things for free by sharing all the time. Kathryn Balint says, ?Ever since the advent of tape recorders, copy machines, and VCRs, people have been doing it, and sharing their copies with others? (A-1). The users of Napster say there are many reasons to use Napster. The accessibility of Napster is unbelievably easy. Most songs are even available before they come out in stores. Many of the people that download music are testing music, and buying it later. Downloading a song takes an average of about twenty minutes on a regular computer. There are many other things to do besides download music. You can chat with some of the friends you have made, or you can make new friends by going to the chat room that is for you. The type of music you like organizes the chat rooms. For example, if you like rap, you would join the rap chat room, or if you likes rock, you would join the rock chat roo m. It even has a hotlist, which lets you find out what type of music anyone has downloaded, and it helps you remember your friend?

The Watergate Scandal Essay -- Fall of President Richard Nixon

Richard Milhous Nixon was the thirty-seventh President of the United States of America from 1969 until 1974. Nixon completed his first term as President in 1973 and was re-elected to the position for the next four years. However, Nixon would have his time in the White House cut short by the series of events that occurred in the twenty-six months that followed the Watergate burglary. On June 17, 1972 five men, one White House employee and four Cubans, broke into the Watergate Office Building in Washington, DC in an attempt to bug the Democratic National Committee (DNC) office. The break in and the events that took place afterwards led to the resignation of Richard Milhous Nixon on August 8, 1974. The morning of June 18, Nixon was at his home in Key Biscayne, FL. when he read a headline about the Watergate break in. The idea was out of this world and Nixon did not believe what he was reading. Nixon dismissed the story as a political prank (Nixon 625-626). James McCord, Bernard Barker, Virgilo Gonzalez, Eugenio Martinez, and Frank Sturgis had been arrested charged with second-degree burglary by the Washington police (WHT 820). McCord, a former CIA officer, was employed by the Committee to Re-elect the President (CRP) as a security consultant. Ironically McCord was supposed to prevent the very things he was doing to the DNC. Nixon telephoned Charles Colson, a special counsel to President Nixon, that evening to discuss the Watergate break in. Colson said, â€Å"he was so furious.......he threw an ashtray across the room and was outraged that anybody even remotely connected with the campaign would have anything to do with a thing like Watergate.† (White 161) Nixon d id not understand why anyone would try to bug the DNC, because... ... . Nixon, Richard. "Nixon: "I Am Not a Crook" Video." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 25 May 2014. . "The People of the Watergate Affair." The People of the Watergate Affair. The Robinson Library, 6 Feb. 2014. Web. 26 May 2014. . "Richard M. Nixon." The White House. The White House, n.d. Web. 16 May 2014. . "Watergate Burglars." Watergateinfo. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2014. . "The Watergate Story." Washington Post: Politics. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 May 2014. .

Market for Coors in South Delaware Essay -- Business Market Analysis

Q1). Currently, there is an opportunity for owning a Coors Distributorship in the southern Delaware counties of Sussex and Kent. Coors is a well-known brand name nationally, and retailers in the targeted area are willing to carry the product, which is an indication of pre-existing brand awareness and demand for Coors. It was necessary to obtain a feasibility study to project a possible profit or loss and $800,000 dollars will be needed for the initial investment. We believe the following decision criteria should be embraced by Larry to make his decision. Market Share - Since Coors will enter this market area for the first time, it is believed that market share will continue to grow as the brand becomes established over time and market share percentage should meet or surpass company market share percentage of 8.7% - 8.9% in the next three years. Larry Brownlow -Although Larry has many alternatives, (conduct no research, continue graduate school, invest trust money, conduct own research following completion of MBA, hold off on MBA to do research presently), obtaining his degree seems to be of utmost importance, as well as achieving success, sooner rather than later, in a self-owned business. Purchasing Research – Purchasing research may be costly, but the knowledge and insight it will provide is paramount. While Larry could surely conduct his own secondary data research for less than $15,000, a busy schedule and time constrain him. See research purchased in Q3. SWOT Analysis - The review of internal and external information provided by a SWOT analysis would provide Larry with information needed to make his decision. Strengths †¢ Owner has an MBA. .. ...market he only has to acquire a 6.31% market share to break even. We feel that making the investment is the best option for his future. Overall Evaluation The investment is an excellent option because the probability of profit is very high. Based on our Pro-forma Income statement, profit will be substantial and will increase each year even after losing .2% of market share. Pessimistically, the market share to break even is very generous making 2.5% room for error if needed when tapping into a brand new market. The ability to make a high market share in the southern part of Delaware would be very substantial. Because it is a beer perceived to be higher class (study H) than its competitors, it will be introduced into a brand new market. See link below for all Exhibits: https://courses.jonesinternational.edu/private/jiu/media/pdf/bba431/bba431m1_coors.pdf

10 Things and Taming of the Shrew Comparison Essay

The playwright of Taming of the Shrew, by Shakespeare, and the film text 10 Things I Hate about You, directed by Gil Junga, convey similar plots, however, the composition of these two texts spreads across 400 years. With this, audiences who have experienced both of these texts can witness the differences of the society within the 17th and the 20th century. This is conveyed through the social context of both era’s (the Elizabethan Era and 20th century USA) and also the Shakespearean language in contrast with the colloquial language. Not only do these play a part, but the gender roles of both women and men are distinctly represented. Finally, the plot and events of both texts coincide with the other issues mentioned. Through all this, there are still discrete and direct links of 10 Things I Hate about You with Taming of the Shrew. Although the modern day appropriation of The Shrew, 10 Things, follows the same storyline and plot, the social context completely contrasts with that of The Shrew. One aspect of where this put across is how men were considered to be superior to women in the Elizabethan Era, compared to the equal values of both men and women in the 20th century. These related to audiences of both centuries as society considered this to be the correct way of living. The quote made by Pertruchio towards Katherina, â€Å"Women are made to bear, and so are you. † (Act 2, Scene 1, Line 203) portrays how a woman must obey that of a man in the 17th century. In 20th century society, this would be unheard of. Also, the reasoning behind the popularity of both texts was that Shakespeare and Gil Junga chose to express their text in the most popular form of entertainment of their time. Playwrights were considered to be the favourited form of entertainment of the 17th century and film was that of the 20th century. See more: Recruitment and selection process essay The language used from both texts reflects and appeal to the audiences of the different time periods. Shakespeare uses quite poetic and refined language to gain interest of the audiences of that time. Gil Junga in his film text has quite rough edged, colloquial language, to replica modern teenagers. However both playwright and director allocate different levels of language to different participants of their text to convey social standard, education rank and hierarchy. â€Å"Y’are a baggage. † (Induction 1, line 3) This is spoken by Christopher Sly, a drunken man in a bar who is at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Compared to the Lord Huntsman, â€Å"I charge thee, tender well my hounds† (induction 1, line 12) who uses sophisticated language. This is mirrored in 10 Things with Kat and Chastity (Bianca’s best friend). Kat is obviously highly educated, and in the scene with all the cars and students in the beginning of the film, Kat makes a remark of, â€Å"Remove head from sphincter, then drive. † As she almost crashes into Michael. Compared to Chastity in the same scene, in a somewhat, â€Å"stupid† manner, she questions, â€Å"I know you can be underwhelmed, and you can be overwhelmed, but can you just be ‘whelmed’? Gender roles within the two texts can be considered the most important aspects of both centuries. In the Elizabethan era, the role of women was to obey the word of a man. They were not expected to have an opinion. They were to get married and be the nurturers of the family. Rebellious women were classified as â€Å"shrews†. On the other side of the spectrum, women in the modern day film have equal values and rites of men. This is put across majorly by Kat. She is classified as a â€Å"Heinous bitch† by her peers. As viewed in her English lessons, she has her own opinion. She recites her favourite writers who are famous feminist women, such as Charlotte Bronte and Sylvia Plath. Conclusions can be made that Kat herself is a feminist. However, due to lack of opinions made by women in Elizabethan times, Katherina is unable to explain why she is the way she is. Katherina’s modern counterpart, Kat has the option to compose statements and opinions. The scene in which Kat and Bianca are in Bianca’s room, Kat explains how she once dated Joey in the Ninth Grade, however Joey was trying to take advantage of her. The result is her present, objective opinions, her personality and behaviour. Finally, the plot and events of both texts reflect the time and culture they were written in. The key plots of these texts are relatively identical – everyone wants Bianca, however Katherina/Kat must be taken first. The aspect of â€Å"marriage† has been altered to â€Å"dating† to reflect the social context. A man from a distant place – Pertruchio (from Verona) and Patrick Verona (from Australia) – is introduced to try and woo Kat/Katherina. The dowry is replaced by money from Joey to date Kat. However, the ending greatly differs to The Shrew. Patrick realizes he has started to have genuine feelings for Kat, unlike Pertruchio who continues to abuse Katherina. Patrick publically expresses his love to Kat with the pole scene in which he sings and dances to â€Å"Can’t Take My Eyes off of You†. The lyrics state, â€Å"I love you baby, and if it’s quite alright, I need you baby. † In Shakespearean times, public affection was rarely or never expressed. Finally, the film concludes with both Kat and Patrick genuinely in love with one another. In comparison to The Shrew, Katherina reluctantly decides to obey the bidding of her husband, Pertruchio. It was considered â€Å"normal† for this particular time and culture to follow the words of a man and have no opinion. Taming of the Shrew and 10 Things I Hate about You hold insight of the revolution of time and how all texts reflect the time and culture they were written in. This is depicted through the social context of the 17th and 20th century, and changes in language structure and form, the alteration of gender roles and finally, the plot and events through the changes of social context.

Color and Psychological Functioning: The Effect of Red Essay

INTRODUCTION The research is conducted to study whether or not the color influence arousal. Color is everywhere. Everyone encounters different colors everyday. Our perceptual experiences are greatly affected by the different colors surrounding us. Past studies have reported that color do affect our physics, physiology and psychology but there is a scarcity of literature regarding color perception and its effects on our psychological functioning (Fehrman & Fehrman, 2004; Whitfield & Wiltshire, 1990). Only few studies have been done earlier to support this hypothesis that red color has negative affect on performance. Elliote et al. (2007) hypothesized that red color impair performance because it evokes avoidance motivation. Different studies have focused on effect of color on performance achievement and the positive role of color in achieving high performance. Some studies have reported the influence of red color on psychological performance. Researchers have been trying to find out those colors that would achieve high performance and improve learning capability among students. According to Goldstein (1942) our body interacts with different colors and reacts, which is manifested in our psychological functioning. He proposed the idea that few colors are disagreeable for human perception and hence when we perceive them their outcomes negate our performance. Similarly, some colors are agreeable and have positive impact on our performance. Those with longer wavelength are arousing (red) and have negative impact on our performance while those with shorter wavelength (neutral) are cooling and calming and have positive impact on our performance. Audio and visual stimuli increases blood flow in cerebral cortex has been used as an affordable technique for different kind of diseases (Othmer, 2004). Whatever the stimulant be, arousal is a factor that attracts and alerts the brain. Arousal from music can have varying impact. Music that is fast arouses brain function while classical music may have just the opposite affect. Rock music is arousal while classic music is calming. Studies have reported that audio-visual entertainment can be used as stimulant for brain to work actively (Othmer, 2004). Arousal is an important part of our brain functioning. Brain’s cortical arousal is said to be directly correlated with the improved performance and determine how well brain can perform. In too much excitement brain releases alpha or theta and hence to pay attention on any job is not possible. One study has shown that rock music can reduce hyperactivity (Cripe, 1986). Purpose of the study is to determine whether high visual or audio arousal affects person’s capability of answering questions of SAT passage. The rationale is to find out the affect of visual and audio arousal on psychological functioning of mind during the process of deep thinking and understanding. Hypothesis Red color has high visual arousal and can impair person’s thinking process and delay their responses to answer questions of SAT passage. Method Participants Fourteen (6 male and 8 female) UCLA undergraduates participated in the experiment as a requirement to complete the class. Participants was restricted to any individual who were native English speakers, did not have a language related disability, and were not red colorblind. The mean age of participants was 23 years old with a range of 20-25 years. Materials The stimuli used in this experiment were four package of Standardized Test (SAT) question, two stop watch, two copies of instruction, two speaker and two separated rooms. Each package has 8 SAT ‘fill in the blank’ questions with same level of difficulty. We are having 16 different packages with different reading passage but the same level of difficulty. The questions were taken from the SAT preparation by Barron’s Verbal Section. We divided participants randomly into four different groups. Each group consist 4 participants and each participant will experience the same set of question but in different order. This will prevent the order effect. There are four different sets of order used in this experiment. There are Punk music – red color, Classical music – red color, Punk music – neutral color, Classical music – neutral color Eight of them are with the classical music and eight of them are with rock music. For visual arousals we also test with the red and neutral color. Eight of them are with red color and eight of them with neutral color. After sometime each group will be exposed to one condition one by one.   Group 1 will be exposed to Audio (rock), Group 2 to Audio (classic), Group 3 to red color and Group 4 to white color. The group that were exposed to rock music while the remaining two groups were exposed to red color and then asked to answer another list of questions from the SAT passage. Procedure This experiment is 2X2 within-subject experiment. Participants were assigned to all of the four with within-subject experimental conditions: the Punk-Red, Punk-White, Classical-Red and Classical-White. Anagram performance served as the dependent measure. The general ability is the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) score. Balanced latin square is used in order to avoid specific items effect and order effect. Therefore, in each group they will not be exposed to the same things.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Participants tested individually by an experimenter for blindness. Participants were randomly assigned to the experimenters in this and all subsequent experiments were aware that color played a role in the experiment, but they remained unaware of the color hypotheses throughout the data collection process. Participants are divided into four groups with 4 individuals per group. Each participant will be offered to do questions under normal environmental condition.   Balanced Latin square setup will be used to determine which set of experiments will be used for each group participants. Two groups were to be selected for color arousal and two for music arousal. All the participants in the 4 groups were offered to solve questions from SAT passage while time for each participant was noted. After sometime two groups were exposed to rock music while the remaining two groups were exposed to red color and then asked to answer another list of questions from the SAT passage. Subjects of Audio arousal (Rock vs. Classical music) Good hearing capability No reading and writing disability All were native English speakers Subjects of Visual Arousal (Red and White color) None were color blind No reading or writing disability All were native English speakers    Participants Punk-Red Punk-White Classical-Red Classical-White   Design This experiment was conducted 2X2 within subjects design experiment so each participant experienced both level of variation with the experiment. This experiment deals with two-way design with two level of variable. There are two variable in this experiment; independent variable and dependent variable. The first independent variable (IV) has two levels. We will be judging audio arousal at two level : high and low. We operationally define this as classical music versus rock music. Our second independent variable is visual stimulation. We define visual stimulation as a color that evokes urgency versus one that is neutral (i.e. red vs. white). The control of this experiment is the difficulty of the question, length of the syllable, time, font size of the words, sample, response type, and presentation style, question order and the presentation style. We also control it by making the balance latin square. The balance latin square is used therefore we can conclude that this test is within subject test two way but two levels and the variable manipulated is the level of arousal. Results A factorial design (color condition: red vs. white) and (audio condition: punk vs. classical) within subject ANOVA was conducted on analogy performance. The result were as follow: Punk White: M 5.21, SD = 1.477; Punk Red : M = 5.00, SD = 1.177; Classical White : M = 5.14, SD = 1.748 ; Classical Red : M = 4.64, SD = 1.64. The analysis revealed an effect of premanipulation analogy performance on analogy performance, F (1,13)   = 0.511 The result indicate there are no main effect and no interaction. Our studies show that rock music and red color is arousal and does distract person’s attention to perform particular work. However, the impact of red color is not as extensive as rock music. There was statistically significant difference between the results produced under control condition and rock music arousal. The answers produced during rock music arousal were not correct or either left blank because of arousal and distraction created by the music. Participants with white background color white threat performed significantly better compared to red color. Participants with punk music performed better compared to classical. PW > CW  Ã‚   and PR > CR PW > PR  Ã‚  Ã‚   and CW > CR Discussion Small discrepancies in the results and experiment might have affected our results. Our predictions were made solely on the basis of previous studies. However, current results due to several reasons. Those who were exposed to classical music deviated and their attention was grasped in listening music, hence they performed poorly on the test. Due to the reason that they were not able to concentrate on reading the passage as music was on. However, punk music didn’t grasp their attention as classical music, hence, their performance was better while they were hearing punk music. In order to make it better we believe next time we should have be a better research protocols. We need to have a better stimulation and prediction of another variable such as the confounding variable, internal validity and the other. It might be because of the confusion created while answering questions or because questions were not well ordered. Some had similar pattern and some have different pattern. Some of the questions have one fill in the blank and some have two fill in the blanks. One variable like color of the paper itself is a variable and can affect performance and create confusion. We also have a problem with the internal validity with the visual stimulation. There are two level of problem in this case. The first one is the sound of the music. We didn’t have a standard for the sound, about the loudness (how loud we want). For e.g. when we played punk music, we played it too loud but when we played classical music, it was not as loud as the punk therefore we believe some variations in the result were due to lack of internal validity. One more thing that can affect our experiment results is that punk music has lyrics and the classical didn’t have any lyrics at all. Some of the participants when they came out from the punk-music room with lyrics and enter the classical-music room with no lyrics, the participants psychologically will be wondering about the lyrics. Some of the participants can study or concentrate with lyrics and some of them cannot. Mostly with lyrics music ‘on’ it is harder to answer the questions because our brain function is divided into two. It is hard to focus for two things. Results with the red color show worst performance, hence, when punk-music and red color both were used, the performance was worst of all other group sets. The reason for this is evident that it is harder to concentrate with such variables that deviate concentration and we tend to focus more on the music than on the questions itself. The frequency also gives a high effect on this. There are low frequency and high frequency of sound in music. Color, have a wavelength. Red, have a high wavelength. For example: Red has higher wave length then blue. If we add up a variety of different color wavelength we are going to have white. The tone that we get is analog to the white. Color Red is said to be arousal itself. Red color taken was similar to that of blood or heart. It’s a classic in nature. Red is used as a sign of danger, in normal day-to-day life red means to stop or it’s dangerous to continue after that. Color red is considered as sign of bad. A graph shows arousal in inverted U shape. It means that initially the level is low then it gains peak and goes high and then back to low again. Other errors occurred were that data was not collected accurately and the sample was small not big. Do you want this below paragraph must be incorporated in the discussion? Reference Fehrman, K. R., & Fehrman, C. (2004). Color: The secret influence (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Goldstein, K. (1942). Some experimental observations concerning the influence of colors on the function of the organism. Occupational Therapy and Rehabilitation, 21, 147–151. Othmer, Siegfried (2004) Applying Audio-Visual Entrainment Technology for Attention and Learning (Part3). Retrieved from http://www.eeginfo.com/newsletter/archive_files/822106688_article_3.pdf Whitfield, T. W., & Wiltshire, T. J. (1990). Color psychology: A critical review. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 116,387–412. Elliot, Andrew J., Maier, Markus A., Moller, Arlen C. and Friedman, Ron., Meinhardt, Jo ¨rg (2007). Color and Psychological Functioning: The Effect of Red on Performance Attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2007, Vol. 136, No. 1, 154–168